Education In Great Britain.

I know English boys and girls begin to go to school(it is called "infant") at five; at seven they go to junior schools or departments; at eleven they go to secondary schools. (After selection procedures at the age of eleven they can study at different types of secondary shool: grammar schools which provide an academic education oriented toeards university entry; secondary modern schools which were originally designed to give a general education with a practical bias(уклон); a few secondary technics schools offering a general education related to industry, commerce and agriculture; and schools providing all three or any two types of education, in separately orginized streams known as multilateral or bilateral schools).
These schools consist of denominational and non-denominational schools. I'd like to yell you about non-denominational school. One must study there for 6 years. It's open to all boys and girls. There are the six years in this school. During the first year all classes recieve the same basic core of subjects namely English, maths, history, geography, science, French, art, music, P.E., technical subjects & home economics. Toward the end of the second year pupils are asked to make their subject choices for third and forth years. Desicions on this stage are only taken after interviews involving parents, staff and the pupils themselfs. The curriculum in 3rd and 4th years consistsof compulsory section (обязательное разделение) which includes English, math and an options section made up of those subjects choosen by the pupil at the end of the second year. Optionl cources are designed to give a sound basic education.
The system of higher education in Britain includes universities, colleges of education and advanced cources at various colleges.
There are more than 44 universities in Britain. But not all universities are equil. They differ from one another in history and tradition. The oldest and world-known universities are Oxford and Cambridge.
A university usually consists of colleges. The departments of the colleges are organized into faculties. In the university students have a series of lectures, seminars, tutorials and laboratory classes. Lectures are given to large groups of students while seminars are much smaller than lectures. Lectures and seminars are all one hour in length, laboratory classes last 2 or 3 hours. The academic year devides into 3 terms. First two termslast for 24 weeks; the 3rd term is reserved for classes and examinations and lasts for six weeks. After three years of study a university graduate will leave with the Degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. Student can continue to take his Master's Degree and then the Doctor's.

Holidays In Great Britain.

Every country and every nation has own traditions and customs. It’s very important to know traditions and customs of other countries. It helps to know more about the history and line of different nations. English are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them up as I know all English people celebrate Christmas on the 25th of December. It’s the season of good will. It’s the most beautiful time of the year - the time of love, joy and hopes. Christmas Day is a family holiday. All the people look forward to it, expecting something special. It is the time when all the family gets together round the Christmas tree decorated with toys and sweets. Little children believe that when they are asleep Santa Claus comes with a big bag of toys. They often hang up large stockings for the presents. All families have Christmas dinners. They eat traditional dishes - turkey, duck, pudding. On the New Year’s Day they watch the old year out and the new year in.
There are some traditions on New Year’s Day. One of them is the old First Footing. The first man to come into the house is very important. The Englishmen believe that he brings luck. This man (not a woman) must be healthy, young, pretty-looking. He brings presents - bread, a piece of coal or a coin. Another best-loved holiday is St.Valentine’s Day on the 14th of February - the holiday of love and affection, the day of sending «valentines» and giving presents to those you love «Be My Valentine» - Englishmen with these word ask to become friends or companion Valentines often are decorated with symbols of love - red hearts and roses, ribbons and laces . In England tradition of celebrating Easter is deep-rooted in the history of the nation . Easter is a church holiday . There is a popular belief that wearing 3 new things on Easter will bring good luck.
Traditionally Easter parades of people in bright new spring clothes are held on this day. Another custom is decorating eggs for children. Eggs are hidden in the yards little children believe that the Easter rabbit comes and leaves eggs for them. Easter candies are maid in the form of eggs, little chickens and rabbits. Halloween is the day or evening before all Saent’s Day. Children dress up in Halloween costumes and masks over their faces. They go out into the streets to beg. People give them sweets, cookies and apples. A favourite Halloween custom is to make a jack-o’-lantern (the children scrape our a pumpkin and cut the eyes, nose and mouth). They light a candle inside the pumpkin to scare their friends. A few words about superstitions in Britain. The people believe that if they put shoes on the table, they will have bad luck. The English won’t kill a spider, especially money spiders (small red ones). This is very unlucky Some animals are also lucky (black cats brihg good luck, white horses are also lucky. The most unlucky thing is to break a mirror. This brings 7 years of bad luck. The number 13 is the most unlucky number especially Combination Friday, the 13th.
According to the Act of Parliament of 1871 there are 4 bank holidays Easter Monday, whit-Monday, Des 26th - Boxing Day. Obher pablic holiday are Good Friday, May Day, Also there is a Pancake Day, April’s Fool Day, Mother’s Day.

Oxford University.

English autonomous institution of higher learning at Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng. It lies along the Upper River Thames (called by Oxonians the Isis), 50 miles (80 km) north-northwest of London.
Sketchy evidence indicates that schools existed at Oxford as soon as the early 12th century. By the end of that century a university was well established, perhaps resulting from the barring of English students from the University of Paris about 1167. Oxford was modeled on the University of Paris, with initial faculties of theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts.
In the 13th century the university gained added strength, particularly in theology, with the establishment of several religious orders, principally Dominicans and Franciscans, in the town of Oxford. The university had no buildings in its early years; lectures were given in hired halls or churches. The various colleges of Oxford were originally merely endowed boardinghouses for impoverished scholars. They were intended primarily for masters or bachelors of arts who needed financial assistance to enable them to continue study for a higher degree. The earliest of these colleges, University College, was founded in 1249. Balliol College was founded about 1263, and Merton College in 1264.
During the early history of Oxford its reputation was based on theology and the liberal arts. But it also gave more serious treatment to the physical sciences than did the University of Paris: Roger Bacon, after leaving Paris, conducted his scientific experiments and lectured at Oxford from 1247 to 1257. Bacon was one of several influential Franciscans at the university during the 13th and 14th centuries. Among the others were Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. John Wycliffe (c. 1330-84) spent most of his life as a resident Oxford doctor.
Beginning in the 13th century the university was strengthened by charters from the crown, but the religious foundations in Oxford town were suppressed during the Protestant Reformation. In 1571 an act of Parliament led to the incorporation of the university. The university's statutes were codified by its chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, in 1636. In the early 16th century professorships began to be endowed, and in the latter part of the 17th century interest in scientific studies increased substantially. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus carried the new learning to Oxford, and such scholars as William Grocyn, John Colet, and Sir Thomas More enhanced the university's reputation. Since that time Oxford has traditionally held the highest reputation for scholarship and instruction in the classics, theology, and political science.
In the 19th century the university's enrollment and its professorial staff were greatly expanded. The first women's college at Oxford, Lady Margaret Hall, was founded in 1878, and women were first admitted to full membership in the university in 1920. In the 20th century Oxford's curriculum was modernized. Science came to be taken much more seriously and professionally, and many new faculties were added, including ones for modern languages, political science, and economics. Postgraduate studies also expanded greatly in the 20th century.
The colleges and collegial institutions of the University of Oxford include All Souls (1438), Balliol (1263-68), Brasenose (1509), Christ Church (1546), Corpus Christi (1517), Exeter (1314), Green (1979), Hertford (1874), Jesus (1571), Keble (founded 1868, inc. 1870), Lady Margaret Hall (founded 1878, inc. 1926), Linacre (1962), Lincoln (1427), Magdalen (1458), Merton (1264), New (1379), Nuffield (founded 1937, inc. 1958), Oriel (1326), Pembroke (1624), Queen's (1340), St. Anne's (founded 1879, inc. 1952), St. Antony's (1950), St. Catherine's (1962), St. Cross (1965), St. Edmund Hall (1278), St. Hilda's (founded 1893, inc. 1926), St. Hugh's (founded 1886, inc. 1926), St. John's (1555), St. Peter's (founded 1947, inc. 1961), Somerville (founded 1879, inc. 1926), Trinity (1554-55), University (1249), Wadham (1612), Wolfson (1966), and Worcester (founded 1283, inc. 1714).
Oxford houses the Bodleian Library and the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology (qq.v.). The Oxford University Press, established in 1478, is one of the largest and most prestigious university publishers in the world.
Oxford has been associated with many of the greatest names in British history, from John Wesley and Cardinal Wolsey to Oscar Wilde and Sir Richard Burton to Cecil Rhodes and Sir Walter Raleigh. The astronomer Edmond Halley studied at Oxford, and the physicist Robert Boyle performed his most important research there. Prime ministers who studied at Oxford include William Pitt the Elder, George Canning, Sir Robert Peel, William Gladstone, Lord Salisbury, H.H. Asquith, Clement Atlee, Anthony Eden, Harold Macmillan, Edward Heath, Sir Harold Wilson, and Margaret Thatcher

Environmental problems.

The poisoning of the world's land, air, and water is the fastest-spreading disease of civilisation. It probably produces fewer headlines than wars, earthquakes and floods, but it is potentially one of history's greatest dangers to human life on earth. If present trends continue for the next several decades, our planet will become uninhabitable.
Overpopulation, pollution and energy consumption have created such planet-wide problems as massive deforestation, ozone depletion, acid rains and the global warming that is believed to be coused by the greenhouse effect.
The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear waste, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The Mediterranean is already nearly dead; the North Sea is following. The Aral Sea is on the brink of extinction. If nothing is done about it, one day nothing will be able to live in the seas.
Every ten minutes one kind of enimal, plant or insect dies out for ever. If nothing is done about it, one million species that are alive today will have become extinct twenty years from now.
Air population is a very serious problem. In Cairo just breathing the air is life threatening- equivalent to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. The same holds true for Mexico City and 600 cities of the former Soviet Union.
Industrial enterprises emit tons of harmful substunces. These emissions have disastrous consequences for our planet. They are the main reason for the greenhouse effect and acid rains.
An even greater environmental threat are nuclear power stations. We all know how tragic the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster are.
People are beginning to realise that environmenta problems are not somebody else's. They join and support various international organosation and green parties. If governments wake up to what is happening- perhaps we'll be able to avoid the disaster that threatens the natural world and all of us with it.

Computers.

When Charles Babbage, a professor of Mathematics at Cambridge university, invented the first calculating machine in 1812 he couldn’t imagine the situation we find ourselves in today. Nearly everything we do in the world is helped, or even controlled by computers, the complicated descedants of his simple machine. Computers are used more and more often in the world today, for the simple reason that they are far more efficent than human beings. They have much better memories and they can store much information. No man alive can do 500000 sums in one second, but a computer can. In fact, computers can do many of the things we do, but faster and better. They can predict weather, and ever play chess, write poetry or compose music.

The use of computers

Just as television has extended human sight across the barriers of time and distance, so the computers extend the power of the human mind across the existing barriers.

Computers in medicine

Computers are one of great importance in modern hospital. The chief use of computers is the storing and sorting the medical knowledge which has been equired in the last 50 years. No doctor can possible keep up with all discoveries. The only solution of the problem is store medical knowledge in a computer. Today there are medical computer centers were all existing knowledge of simpthoms of various dessieses and of their treatment is stored. Doctors feed data on simpthoms in the computer and get the nessesary information on correct diagnostics and treatment.

Computers that can be learn

Ordinary computer can remember only the data stored in the hard disk. Now scientists have desighned machines, that are capable of learning from experience and remembering what they have learned. Such a machine is capable of recognising objects without human help or control. Of course, they made many mistakes.
There is another similar machine which can look at letter alphabet a simple words and they “say” thought a loudes speaker what it has seen. The machine has as certain learning power.

Computers at the school

Information science with the ideas and message of processing and storing informations is of great importance today. That’s why computer technology must be told in secondary school. The new subject “basic information science”, and “computing machine” was intreduste for the siner forms at schools. The pupils teach computers to anlestigate school problems. Contact with the machine increases the interest in learning, makes them more serious about studing new subject. School computers are used not only for studing information science, but also examinations purposes. Young people who finish the school must be trained to operate computers.

Business Trip.

Never before in the history of the world have businessmen traveled so much as they do today. It is not surprising because we are living in a world of growing international trade and expanding economic and technical cooperation. Fascinating though it is for tourist travelling, however, has become the most tiring of all the occupations for many businessmen and experts. Choosing a comfortable hotel to stay at is, therefore, a matter of some importance. There are plently of good hotels, motels, and guest houses, in the world, conviently located for major business centers. Many developing countries, such as India, Egypt, Nigeria, Lybia, etc have excellent hotels. Their numerous facilities include both: large and small cocktail barber's shops and conference halls, equipped with simultaneous, multilingual translation systems. There are parking areas which can accomodate a lot of cars. It might be useful for travelling businessmen and tourists to know that tailor shops, shoe repair shops and laundry, dry cleaning services are available for guests. People in the office help guests to book train or steamer tickets and rent a car. They are also ready to give all necessary information. Nowadays people who go on business mostly travel by air as it is the fastest means of travelling. Passengers are requested to arrive at the airport 2 hours before departure time on international flights and an hour on domestic flights as there must be enough time to complete the necessary airport formalities. Passengers must register their tickets, weigh in and register the luggage. Most airlines have at least 2 classes of travel: first class and economy class which is cheaper. Each passenger of more than 2 years of age has a free luggage allowance. Generally this limit is 20kg for economic class passenger and 30kg for first class passenger. Excess luggage must be paid for except for some articles that can be carried free of charge. Each passenger is given a boarding pass to be shown at geparture gate and again to the stewardess when boarding the plane. Watch the electric sign flashes when you are on board, when the "Fasten Seat Belts" sign goes on do it promptly and also obey the "No Smoking" signal. Do not forget your personal effects when leaving the plane.

THE UNIVERSITIES in IRELAND.

In the turbulent centures that followed the Norman invasi- on, several efforts were made to establish universities in Ireland. In 1311, John de Leah, Archbishop of Dublin, obtained a bull from Pope Clement V authorizing him to establish a uni- versity in Dublin, but he died before anithing could be accom- plished. An attempt was made in 1465 to found a university in Drogheda; this was to be endowed, as far as the Prliament of the England Pale could do it, with all the rights and privile- ges of the university of Oxford. The parliament concerned was presided over by Tomas, Earl of Desmond; two ears later he was attainted and beheaded, his estates were confiscated, and once more the idea of a university came to nothing.At last,in 1591, the idea was realized.

TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN

In that year a group of Dublin citixents obtained a char- ter from Queen Elizabeth I incorporating Trinity College as a mater universitatis. By this term they envisaged that a group of university colleges would sterm from Trinity in the conti- nental and English style;owing to the course of Tudor and sub- sequent Irish history that ideal has not yet been realized.The Corporation of Dublin granted to the new foundation the lands and dilapidated buldings of the Monastery of All Hallows,lying south-east of the sity walls Subscriptions were raised from among the principal gentleman of each country, who had been invited to assist the new college to the benefit of the whole country, whereby Knowlege, Learning and Civility may be incre- ased,to the banishment of barbarism,tumults and disorderly li- ving from among them. A number of landed estates were secured to the College out of the confiscations which followed the de- feat northen Earls.
The university was designed to encourage English culture in Ireland,and to promote the reformed religion in it's statu- tory form,so that it's establishment afforded no opportunities for higher education to recusant bodies, whether Catholic or Dissenting. The college survived the storms of the Cromwellian and Revolution periods, and settled down as the university of the colonial ascendancy, taking it's tone from the new Whig society,mainly mercantile and nouveau riche,which had been put in power by the Williamite victory. Yet even in the religious and political doldrums of the eghteenth century, the true uni- versity and liberal spirit survived in Trinity,and it's alum- ni included Swift,Berkeley, Bruke, Goldsmith, Grattan,and Wolf Tone. Towards the close of the century there was an awakening sense of independence and of patriotism in what had been a colonial minority, with a consequent relaxation of the penal code which had discriminated, in religion and culture, against the native Irish and the Anglo-Irish majority; and after the passage of the Catholic Relief Act,1793, Trinity abandoned the exclusive character it had hith erto borne.
Since 1947, the College has received substantial grants from the Irish State. Recent years have brought to the Univer- sity a great diversity of students, wuth many of the undergra- duates coming from Great Britan and from overseas.
The University is represented by the Chancellor,Vice-Chan- cellor and Senate,whose main function is to confer degrees.The College is governed by the Board of Trinity College.The assent of the Board is required to all professional chairs and other academic posts, and determines details of courses and examina- tions. The Povost of the College is nominated by the Goverment from one of three names submitted by the Board. Except in this last respect,the University and the College enjoy complete au- tonomy. The College Library is Great Britan and Ireland.

YOUR PASTIME AND HOBBY.

Hobby is what a person likes to do in his spare time. Hobbies differ like tastes. If you have chosen a hobby according to your character and taste you are lucky because your life becomes more interesting. The most popular hobby is doing things. It includes a wide variety of activities from gardening to traveling, from chess to volleyball. Both grown-ups and children are fond of playing different computer games. This hobby is becoming more and more popular. Making things include drawing, painting, handicrafts. Many people collect something - coins, stamps, compact discs, toys, books. Some collections have some value. Rich people often collect paintings, rare things and other art objects. Often such private collections are given to museums, libraries.
As for me, I like to listen to music. 3 months ago my parents bought me a compact disc player and I decided to collect compact discs. I like different music, it should be good. I collect discs of my favourite groups and singers. I carefully study the information printed on discbooklets. I try to find everything about my favourite singers. Also I like to watch music programmes on TV. I want to keep up with the news in the world of music.
Of course, I like to spend my spare time with my friends. We talk about all sorts of things ( politics, teachers, girls). We discuss films, books, TV programmes. In fine weather we like to be in the open air. We find a nice place somewhere in the forest. We make a fire, bake potatoes and have a lot of fun. When the weather is bad, my friends come to my place. We have a good time together.

Customs And Traditions.

Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The English are reputed to be cold, reserved, rather haughty people. They are steady, easy-going and fond of sports. There are certain kinds of behavior, manners and customs which are peculiar to England.
The English are naturally polite and are never tired of saying « Thank you » and « I am sorry ». They are generally disciplined, you never hear loud talk in the street. They don’t rush for seats in buses and trains, but they take their seats in queues at bus stops. English people do not shake hands when meeting one another, they do not show their emotions even in tragic situations. They seem to remain good-tempered and cheerful under difficulties.
The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. There is no place like home. The Englishman says « My house is my castle » because he doesn’t wish his doings to be overlooked by his neighbours. It is true that English people prefer small houses, built for one family. The fire is the focus of the English Home. Other nations go out to cafes or cocktail bars. The fireplace is the natural centre of interest in the room. They like to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames, exchanging the day’s experience. In many houses you will still see fireplaces, sometimes with columns on each side and a shelf above it on which there is often a clock or a mirror or photos.
The love of gardens is deep-rooted in the British people. Most men’s conversations are about gardens. It may be a discussion of the best methods of growing cucumbers, a talk about the plot which differs from all the others.
The British like growing plants in a window-box outside the kitchen or in the garden near the house. They love flowers very much. Britain is a nation of animal lovers. They have about five million dogs, almost as many cats, 3 million parrots and other cage birds, aquarium fish - and 1 million exotic pets such as reptiles. In Britain they have special dog shops selling food, clothes and other things for dogs. There are dog hair-dressing saloons and dog cemetries. In Britain pets can send Christmas cards to their friends, birthday cards. Owners can buy for their pets jewelled nylon collars, lambswool coat for a dog, lace-trimmed panties, nightgowns, pyjamas, and so on. There are special animal hotels at the airports. The English people believe that they are the only nation on the earth that is really kind to its animals. How do they spend their week-ends.
Those who live in cities and towns like to go out of town. They may go to stay in the country. Every Englishman is fond of the countryside in a nice thatched cottage with roses round the porch and in the garden, the fresh air and bright sun. No crowds of people, silence and leisure.
Those who stay at home try to do all the jobs they, were too busy to do during the week. Some go shopping on Saturday mornings, some do the house - washing, cleaning. Some men do and watch sporting events.
Saturday evening is the best time for parties, dances, going to the cinema or theatre.
On Sunday after breakfast they may go to work in the garden take a dog for a walk, play a visit to a pub. Sunday is a day for inviting friends and relatives to afternoon tea.
There are some traditions concerning food. English cooking is heavy, substantial and plain. The Englishman likes a good breakfast. To him a good breakfast means porridge with, fish, bacon and eggs, toast and marmalade, tea or coffee. It is the same day to day. The English like their toast cold.
Tea is part of the prose of British life, as necessary as potatoes and bread. Seven cups of it wake you up in the morning, 9 cups will put you to sleep at night.
The midday meal is called lunch. This meal consists on week- days of stew, fried fish, chops, liver or sausages, vegetables. Rice and macaroni are seldom served. Then does an apple tart, or hot milk pudding. Sunday dinner is a special occasion, it is a joint of beef or lamb with vegetables. Then goes a large heavy pudding with custard. From 4 to 6 there is a very light meal called 5 o’clock tea. It is a snack of thin bread and butter and cups of tea with small cakes. This became a kind ritual. At this time everything stops for tea.
Dinner (usually at 6 p.m.) is much like lunch and is in many families the last meal of the day. Supper is a snack of bread and cheese and cocoa.
The English have a popular speciality known as fish and chips. They are bought at special fish and chips shops.

THERE IS NO BAD WEATHER, THERE ARE BAD CLOTHES.

Englishmen say «There is no bad weather, there are bad clothes», It means that they like all the seasons, all kinds of weather. Every season is good in its own way. Each person likes this or that season. It depends on his character, mood. They say that Pushkin liked autumn very much. This season is full of colours, bright and tasty. The sky is blue, but sometimes grey clouds appear. The sun shines but it begins to hide behind the clouds. Its rays are not so warm. Autumn is full of vegetables and fruit, mushrooms and berries. There is nothing like Indian summer in autumn. As for me, I like to walk on the carpet of bright leaves listen to the last songs of birds flying to warm countries, look at the nature. It is like a fairy-tale. It fades away and nothing can be done. Soon drizzling rains will begin and everything will be dull and sad. But still I like autumn.
Winter in Usinsk is long and severe with dark nights, bitter wings and hard frosts. Even sometimes you can see a quiet winter frosty day. It is snowing. Fluffy soft snowflakes are falling to the ground making a beautiful thick carpet. The icecles glitter in the sun the snow sparkles like diamond. Going outdoors in such weather is pleasant. Many people go to the forests and enjoy sledging and skiing, playing snowballs and making a snowman.
As for spring, people in Usinsk long for it and dream about it during long winter days. It comes late but suddenly. I don’t like it because my town becomes grey. But spring is the beginning of new life. Nature awakens from its long winter sleep. The trees begin to bud and soon tiny green leaves will appear. Young green grass appear, fruit trees begin to blossom. Everything looks magic covered with green carpet. Nature looks full of promise.
I like summer because we have holiday and enjoy resting after school year.
In my opinion every season is beautiful and attractive. As one famous poet said:«I see no reason to speak in prize of any season».